Psychological Impact of Socio-Political Factors Essay

A society is composed of distinct cultures which identifies itself from others. The cultures of societies are distinct and people’s lives are usually patterned from prevalent traditions, practices and beliefs within that culture. Culture could be held responsible in the upbringing of an individual. People continuously conform on the dynamic culture of the society as they adhere on the norms, practices and values. Culture is an ever-changing feature of a society and incessantly develops and redefines attributes based on lifestyles and conditions. It is influenced by various factors that create sustained tight cultures. This will further result on the variations in cultures of a global society. We attribute cultural differences in its historical and ecological context. Socio- political factors also influenced our culture. These factors influence psychological appendages of an individual. As world trade and globalization are greatly emphasized, interaction across culture is increased and cultural diversity becomes a hindrance to fully achieve its objectives. Socio-political factors are in many forms and are inherently embedded in culture. These factors play significant role in molding the identity of a particular society. Socio-political factors are founded based on our beliefs and values and our behavioral tendencies and they were accustomed in our daily lives (Schneider, 2004). Stereotyping There were so many social groups in every country and it makes that particular nation a diverse geographic area. We could easily picture a collage of the various social groups but we could fail to include the real identities and configurations of these social groups (Stangor & Schaller, 1996). We may generate a statement on the perception of the characteristics and utilized it to describe the whole group. For example, Germans are hot-tempered and African Americans are rowdy. This process of thought depicts the conventional definition of stereotypes in social psychology, in which stereotypes are regarded as the main picture portraying the totality or the representation of a particular group of individuals. Stereotyping could also exist in the minds of the persons who are being stereotyped (Stangor & Schaller, 1996). Stereotyping is a type of socio-political factor where we categorized people based on our beliefs. Perception plays a large part in the social context. Stereotyping is how we perceive people as established by a particular circumstance. In the course of time, stereotypes are considered synonymous to certain constructs that is ordained in the study of stereotypes. Stereotypes are considered as products of categorization, labels, schemas- these constructs tend to overlap each other for they were closely related (Schneider, 2004). Stereotypes is a result of our behavior towards others, it also affect our behavioral patterns toward different kinds of people. There is a substantial participation of group members in fostering stereotyping in people. Shared experiences suggested that stereotypes grew impliedly when members of a particular group perceived a certain category on the other group of individuals (Schneider, 2004). We think in-groups and out-groups as natural phenomena and we perceive them differently. Categorization of groups evolved into stereotyping. Stereotyping could render negative implications, this includes depriving opportunities to the persons being stereotyped based solely on the biased belief of the one assessing them. Stereotyping could be an individual problem and shall consider that it is not a shared knowledge, but when the perception was common in all members of the community; its effects become more noxious because it affects the whole society in the same way (Stangor & Schaller, 1996). Stereotyping, therefore, could be looked at two perspectives. It could exist in the person’s mind, as representations of a person’s beliefs and values. It could also be viewed as a piece of society’s social fabric, a part of a larger scale of commonly shared perception of social groups (Stangor & Schaller, 1996). It becomes a question if the existence of social reality is individualized or dwell as a shared understanding. The particular distinction between the two lies mainly in the assumed relevance of this common knowledge and its importance and impacts on the lives of each individual within the social group (Stangor & Schaller, 1996). Racism Stereotyping could evolve into other socio-political factors that may render detrimental effects. Racism can be widely utilized in everyday life. The concept of racism is negatively burdened, injected with political and moral descriptions. Therefore, claiming someone to be a racist is considered as inappropriate and even immoral. The definition is inclined for connoting political abuse. The definition also offers significance in the field of academics and raise political and moral argumentation (Miles & Brown, 2003). Racism is the generalized body of information, real or imaginary, pertaining to a person or group of individual that render benefits or gain on the racist and expense on the one being judged (Memmi et al. , 1999). Racism is the mistreatment of people based on their race. We all belong in a particular race, human race. This resulted from the inequality in the social structures and configurations. It is also a product of inequitable and unequal stratification of economic, political and social means (Sherover-Marcuse, 2000). Racism is defined improperly. There is no established definition for racism, if we would think philosophically, if racism is defined as morally and politically undesirable. There must be a shared understanding on why it is unacceptable. the definition could not established a concrete criteria on whether an account is racist or not. Utilizing the existing definition, we could be all racists. If the broad definition will be adhered, then it impliedly says that American people are all racists (Miles & Brown, 2003). Sometimes the description on the person being discriminated is inaccurate and they were being judged based on their color and cultural identity. Thus, it result to social empowerment of the racists and the judgments were passed into concurrent society that affects everyone (Sherover-Marcuse, 2000). Sexism Another socio-political factor that becomes a major dilemma in the society is the concept of sexism. Sexism directs us in the delving into gender studies, but it is a critical issue for it deals with a lot of aspects of gender inequality. Sexism is the inherent belief of the superiority of a particular sex over the other and therefore claims the right to be dominant in society (Curry, 1995). This will lead us in perceiving that in conventional society male is dominant over the female specie. This is evident in our history books and even in the holy scriptures of religions. Most of the messages were addressed to males. The dominance of males connotes the inferiority of females and the deprivation of prerogatives and rights enjoyed by the other sex. Many uprisings of the women sectors have been accounted in history in attempt in obtaining liberation and equality in treatment and opportunities. For example, the acquisition of suffrage is a pivotal event in women’s history and the ability to participate in major economic and political activity was celebrated by women in the society. Although there are claims that sexism no longer exists in our society. We could say that it is impliedly manifested through various of means. There were still claims in mistreatment in the workplace and females were not given equal opportunities. Mass media greatly contributes in reinforcing the concept of sexism through the portrayals of women in ads and programs depicting the traditional concept of women as inferior, weak, dependent and as home providers. There is a lack of portrayal of the emerging female specie- dynamic, strong and nurturing. Psychological Impact These socio-political factors have an undeniable psychological impact to a culturally diverse individual. Each person was raised in a society with inherent culture established that distinguished the group of individuals to other group of individuals. Every one of us is composed of layers of cultural learning ascribed or acquired that make up the totality of our individuality. These layers of cultural teachings were acquired through various influences. Every individual was shaped ethnicity, race, religion, education, profession, organization and parents. These attributes are the primary factors that affect the formation of the individuality of a person. One’s gender, peers, family and origin are also vital in redefining the one’s cultural identity (Gardenswartz & Rowe, 1998). Because we acquired our cultural teachings in different sources we are programmed differently and were reared heterogeneously. Therefore our individual differences make us culturally diverse. The socio-political factors aforementioned could be well-explained and examined under the specific branch of psychology- Evolutionary Psychology. This new branch of psychology is focused on establishing explanations on mental and psychological traits of individuals. There is a growing symbiotic and significant relationship between environmental and social psychology. Evolutionary theory is slowly infiltrate social psychology researchers. Evolutionary psychology examines new frontiers with specialty, like the socio-political factors mentioned above (Perilloux & Webster, 2008). It was argued that these factors shaped a person’s psychological mechanisms. It was stated that the concept of self do not exist but it was layers of psychological mechanisms (Perilloux & Webster, 2008). These socio-political factors discussed above are somehow interconnected with each other. Stereotyping could render significant psychological impacts in the upbringing of an individual. They may obtain wrong information about persons they stereotyped. For stereotypical roles, though shared by a lot of people could not be regarded as true. Stereotyping will reflect implicit behavioral comments like that there are roles more appropriate for men and women. This will create a general perception that some roles are only intended for a particular sex and that the other could not offer strong decisions and capabilities in participating in these certain fields (Swim et al. , 2001). This also indicates that men are better in male-dominated fields (Swim et al. , 2001). Due to the stereotypical roles and attributes being tagged to persons, they were undermined of their capabilities and capacities. It will also say that women are inferior and passive (Swim et al. , 2001), which is untrue about women nowadays. More women are participating in the fields dominated by male before and show exemplary performance in doing tasks. But the greatest implication would be an animosity for women (Swim et al. , 2001). Because of stereotyping, people will create an attitude towards the stereotyped individual.

Issues of Damning and Flooding essays

Issues of Damning and Flooding essays My research project is on the issues of damming and flooding. This research project will explain to you why people create dams, what types of dams there are, and what is the effect that a dam makes on the land. Also this project will explain to you what causes flooding and how it affects the land and everything around it. It will also explain how to prevent and protect yourself. Finally this paper will explain to you how to stop flooding and how to protect your house from it. Dams are created for many different reasons. They can be created to slow down the flow of a river or they can be created to produce electricity and collect drinkable water. The reason some dams are created is to decrease and slow the flow of water in a river. This is done because some rivers can become so high that they are always over flowing even during a small rainstorm. The most important reason that dams are built is to make hydroelectricity. Hydroelectricity is electricity made by turbines being pushed by water. There are many different types of dams in the world that fit different situations better. The first type explained to you is a gravity dam. Gravity dams are dams that can withstand the force of a large horizontal wall of water. This is used to cover large spaces that need to have a lake behind them. The Hoover Dam in Boulder, Nevada is a gravity dam. Another type of dam is an arch dam. Arch dams are suitable for small narrow canyons where there is a need for a dam. Another type of dam is a buttress dam. Buttress dams are dams are dams that have very thin walls held up by buttresses. They are used more often because they cost less and use fewer materials then the other two types of dams. Dams are helpful to humans yet hurtful to the environment. Dams can totally destroy the environment that they are built in. They change the natural rivers and make them in to unnatural lakes. Dams can change the water salinity level in t...

Advertising job likes and dislikes listening exercise

Advertising job likes and dislikes listening exercise In this listening comprehension you will hear a woman speaking about what she likes and dislikes about her advertising industry job. Listen to what she says and decide whether the following statements are true or false. You will hear the listening twice. Try to listen without reading the listening transcript. After you have finished, check your answers below to see if you have answered the questions correctly. Listen to the selection. Advertising Job Quiz Her job is extremely diverse.She spends a lot of time on the phone.She telephones people to ask them survey questions.The most important thing is what people think.They can lose jobs if sales decrease.She enjoys the artistic nature of her job.Her best idea came when she was brainstorming.Brainstorming is done alone.One great idea alone can bring success.You can lose your job easily.What profession does she work in? Listening Transcript Well, everyday for me is different. I mean to say that some days I speak to clients for hours and hours, and try to convince them that our ideas are the best.   A lot of my time is spent on research. Well, we have to deal with all the viewing and readership figures. We make up our own surveys to discover what a cross section of people think. We dont just look at what people think, but because what really counts is: What sells the goods? The simple fact is that if we dont show a rise in sales we lose a customer.   The part I really enjoy is the creativity. Its funny really. I get ideas in the most peculiar places. The best idea I ever got was one time when I was sitting in the bath. I jumped out and wrote it down immediately. We also do what we call brainstorming. That is: pooling and sharing our ideas. And we get the best ideas this way. That is as a result of teamwork. I mean, alright, we depend on everybody being creative, and this often happens best when youre working alone. But without a good team, no campaign has a hope in hell of succeeding. A good agency is, in fact, a team of individuals who work well alone, but also together.   Hmmm, the drawbacks. Now, the biggest drawback of my work is that you stand or fall by your results. If you cant think of new ideas, or you make an expensive mistake then you get fired. And youre out of a job. Thats always worrying, I can tell you.   Quiz Answers True - Every day is different. She states Well, everyday for me is different.True - Sometimes she spends hours and hours on the phone with one client. She states, I speak to clients for hours and hours and try to convince them that our ideas our best.False - She does research on data they get from surveys. She states  A lot of my time is spent on research.False - Sales is the most important thing. She states  ... because what really counts is: What sells the goods?True - If sales dont rise, they can lose a customer. She states  The simple fact is that if we dont show a rise in sales we lose a customer.True - She really enjoys the creativity. She states  The party I really enjoy is the creativity.False -She was sitting in a bath. She states  The best idea I ever got was one time when I was sitting in the bath.  False - Brainstorming is when everybody gets together to come up with ideas.  She states  ... we call brainstorming. That is: pooling and sharing our ideas.Fals e - Teamwork is required for success. She states  A good agency is a team of individuals who work well alone, but also together. True - If you make a mistake you can get fired.  She states  If you make an expensive mistake then you get fired.  Advertising

Health and safety risk assessment in civil engineering projects Essay

Health and safety risk assessment in civil engineering projects - Essay Example This research will begin with the statement that the welfare of people operating or working within the confines of any manufacturing or engineering environment is of main importance. Every worker should expect to be capable of carrying out their task in a safe manner that has no negative effect on their health and wellbeing. In fact, many organizations not only reduce risks and make improvements to the working environment but try to make their own working environment superior to others, making it a competitive aspect when recruiting staff. Health and safety in the field are about measures designed to protect the health and safety of workers, visitors and the general public who may be affected by workplace activities. Safety measures about controlling and reducing risks to anyone who might be affected by these activities. Health and safety are controlled largely by legislation and regulations and the law is continually being revised and updated. It is important that organizations are aware of these changes and keep up to date with developments. This unit provides an understanding of hazards and risks associated with health, safety, and welfare in an engineering workplace. Learners will develop an understanding of the requirements of health, safety and welfare legislation and regulations and of their roles in complying with the related legal obligations. Ideally, this unit would form a key component of the program, as the content is applicable to many engineering situations. Learners will be required to undertake full risk assessments and to appreciate the significant risks encountered in the workplace and the measures taken to deal with them (Melchers, 2002). They will also study the principles of reporting and recording accidents and incidents, again within a legal context. The main aim in civil engineering is to manage risk, eliminating or reducing it to acceptable levels (Melchers, 2002). Risk is the combination of the possibility of a failure event, and the risks resulting from the failure. For example, the extent of a particular failure may result in risks fatalities, injuries, property damage, or nothing more than annoyance. It may be regular, occasional, or rare happenings. The acceptability of the failure depends on the combination of the two. Probability is often more difficult to predict than severity due to the many things that could cause a failure, such as mechanical failure, environmental effects, and operator error. Any specialist in the field should be able to assess and comprehensively report on any environmental principle, from aquatic to marine science, air, soil, geology, geo-hydrology, archaeology, ecology, rehabilitation, or any such science connected to the environment. Safety engineering tries to lower the occurrence of failures, and make sure that when failures do happen, the results are not life-threatening. For instance, bridges are designed to carry loads well in excess of the heaviest truck likely to use them. This reduces the possibility of being overloaded. Most bridges are designed with back up load paths, so that if any one structural member fails, the structure will remain standing. This reduces the severity if the bridge happens to be overloaded. Safety should starts during the early design of a system. Engineers should consider what bad events can happen under what conditions, and predict the related accident risk. They should propose safety mitigation requirements in specifications at the start of development or changes to existing designs to make a system safer. These may be done by fully getting rid of any type of hazards or by lowering accident risk. More often, instead of engineers influencing the design, they should prove that an existing, completed design is safe. If the engineer discovers significant safety problems late in the development process, correcting them can be very costly (Great Britain, 2003). This type of error has the potential to waste large sums of money and likely more important, human

Popol Vuh Creation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Popol Vuh Creation - Essay Example first lesson and which is too important is respecting and honoring the gods and creators ( Miller & Karl, 1997).Though, humans have been given the gift of animals, they are given warning not to mistreat them. Also from this story about creation humans are given trickery and cleverness as a virtue and the power of mind. Another lesson from this creation is that it is different to other mythologies in that; Maya has a strong believe that a world can be changed and redeemed if it is broken while the others warn of damnation and destruction for transgression (Sharer, 2006). The third lesson is that when cultures are faced with difficulty issues in modern era and fear of end life humans should only be strong. In Mayas creation story explains how founders of Quiche noble dynasties who praised the gods and they searched the gods in the world until they found them in bundles and they happily took them home (Garson & Golembe, 1995). Tedlock, D. (ed.). (1985). Popol Vuh: the Definitive Edition of the Mayan Book of the Dawn of Life and the Glories of Gods and Kings with commentary based on the ancient knowledge of the modern Quichà © Maya. Simon and Schuster. New

Rising Oil Prices Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Rising Oil Prices - Research Proposal Example Fuel prices have risen and affected every nation in the world since the early years of this decade. Nandia Mongia (2008) reports that crude oil prices have increased in the world market from 22 U.S. Dollars up to almost $90 U.S. Dollars per barrel. This affected the prices of petroleum products like diesel, kerosene, propane, and gasoline and hit lower-income households. Figure 1 shows the rising trend of oil products from 2000 up to 2006. Mongia (2008) mentions five (5) reasons for the rising of oil prices: (1) increasing demands for oil in the world market, (2) reduction of buffers, (3) uncertain oil supply, (4) assumption in the global oil market, and (5) lack of investments on exploration and refining. Robert Hirsch et al. (2005) mentions the notion of oil peaking. They note as perceived by geologists, oil is a limited source found under the earth's crust and its production will soon reach its peak or maximum and from there production will decline. They also emphasize that oil peaking is not related with running out of oil but it only describes the maximum production rate of an oil reservoir when half of its oil is recovered. (Hirsh et al. 2005) Oil peaking can be attributed to rising oil prices since the decreasing supply of oil may not meet the required demand so prices will go up in order to decrease the demand. Figure 2 explains the shift of the supply curve (S1 - S2) and the rise of equilibrium price ($1 - $2 ) because of the decrease in oil production. Figure 2 C. Implications of the Rise in Oil Prices Mongia (2008) finds that the macroeconomic effects of the increase in prices of oil are not yet seen. As shown in Figure 3, the inflation brought by the increase in the average price of crude in 2000's was matched by the growth of the world's real GDP although signs of slowdown were seen. For the developing countries in Asia, the effects of inflation hampered GDP growth which has not changed since 2004. (Mongia 2008) Oliver Blanchard and Jordi Gali (2008) prove four (4) reasons for the mild impacts of the recent oil price increase: (1) lack of adverse shocks which happened in the 1970's, (2) lesser share of oil in production, (3) highly flexible labor markets, and (4) enhancements in the monetary policy. Figure 3 (Real GDP Growth, Crude Price 1990 - 2006) On the other hand, the microeconomic effects of the rise in oil prices were experienced by the poor. As stated by Mongia (2008), many developing countries are oil dependent and spend more resources on importing oil. Poor households use petroleum products like kerosene, liquefied petroleum gas, diesel, gasoline, and chemical fertilizers in their daily living. The rise of in the prices of oil will force them to use other sources like biomass or fuel wood and crop remains. These effects will harm some Millennium

DNA Tranlession Polymerase in Prokaryotic Cells

DNA Tranlession Polymerase in Prokaryotic Cells DNA Tranlession Polymerase in prokaryotic cells: History, structures and function Soheil Malekpour DNA is one of the most important part of the cell that gives cell integrity and character. This part of the cell can be exposed to different kinds of damages that may put the cells integrity in jeopardy. The only part of the cell that has this ability to be repaired is DNA. Basically repairing should be done due to a reasonable reason. Repairing the other macromolecules are not profitable. For example, if a defective protein forms, the protein can be simply be replaced by another one. But defects in DNA can cause problem in the whole cell organisms and the character of cell [1]. Usually the whole repairing process is happening fast, although there are defects that persist against this process. The repairing process is done by special polymerases and the whole process of DNA repair is called translesion DNA synthesis (TLS) [2]. DNA can be damaged due to different reasons, such as base modification, elimination or addition of nucleotides, crosslinking of DNA strands and breakage of phosphodiester backbone [1]. These reasons can be due to some environmental conditions such as radiation or insertion of certain chemicals in to the body or due to malfunction of polymerases and enzymes in cellular process, such as putting wrong nucleotide in the DNA strand chain [1]. Up to now, it is known that there are three translesion DNA polymerases (TLS polymerases) in E. coli and about fifteen polymerases in eukaryotes that can run this process [2]. History For the first time it was in the early 1940s, that it was found agents causing mutational changes such as ionizing and radiation of UV, interact with cells and can damage their genome [3]. Also it was found that these cells can survive and recover from theses damages [4] and the term DNA repair was found. DNA repair is a biochemical term that defines biological processes during which alterations in the chemistry of DNA (DNA damage) are removed and the integrity of the genome is restored [3]. The first DNA repair mechanism to be discovered was enzymatic photo reactivation (EPR) [3]. This process is referred to the elimination of cyclobutane pyrimidine, which are generated by UV radiation and can block both DNA replication and transcription, from the genome [4]. This reaction can be catalyzed by photoreactivating enzyme in a reaction that needs a visible range light. The second mechanism found was excision repair [3]. This mechanism is referred to DNA damages cut out from genome that leaves some gaps in DNA duplex. These gaps are repaired by a non-semiconservative mode of DNA synthesis called repair synthesis [5]. By the end of the 1970s, it was known that cells are using various mechanisms for DNA repair process that focus around two basic principles: the excision of base damage or its direct reversal such as EPR [3]. In the mid1970s Miroslav Radman proposed a new hypothesis called SOS hypothesis [5, 6]. TheSOS hypothesis proposes an overall response to DNA damage in which thecell cycleis stopped andDNA repairis induced. Genetics experiments demonstrated that main players involved in damage-induced mutagenesis are lexA, recA along with umuD and umuC [2]. LexA cleavage from recA* and also umuD cleavage that form umuD use the same mechanism and is an absolute requirement for SOS mutagenesis. For showing that, E. coli because of its simple structure was used as a model for translesion DNA synthesis and mutagenesis. Later Harrison Echols proposed another model and suggested that in order to help the replication process against the lesions it is possible to reduce the fidelity of proteins so when DNA replication process is stopped at a location of unrepaired DNA damage, certain SOS-regulated genes can encode proteins that interact with the hindered replication process in a manner that reduces their fidelity [3]. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, it was demonstrated that Echols genes are in fact specialized low-fidelity DNA polymerases that enhance low-fidelity replication across the lesion, the so-called translesion DNA synthesis (TLS) [3]. Their highly reduced fidelity allows the replicative bypass of sites of DNA damage, but with a high chance of combining incorrect nucleotides [5]. Early TLS models and PolV Bridges and Woodgate were the first ones who defined the function of Umu proteins during UV-induced TLS in 1985 [7]. According to them, TLS happened in two steps. In the first step Pol III add a nucleotide opposite the first (3†²) T of a T-T cytidine diphosphate diacylgelycerol (CPD). Bounding a RecA protein to the template proximal to the lesion is a requirement for this step. In the second step, Pol III interacts with UmuDC proteins to incorporate another nucleotide at the second (5†²) T of the cytidine diphosphate diacylgelycerol (CPD). At least one of these two steps are non-WC, causing a mutation targeted at the site of the CPD [2]. Figure 1 shows the process schematically. Another model was proposed by Echols and Goodman in 1990 [3]. In this model they proposed that when Pol III encounters a template lesion, its holoenzymes (Pol III core, beta sliding clamp, gamma-clamp-loading complex) are completely blocked. This process follows by the assembly of a damage localized nucleoprotein complex involving RecA, UmuC, UmuD†², SSB, and Pol III holoenzyme, a mutasome, to copy past a template lesion [2]. The fact that RecA* simplifies the cleavage of UmuD to UmuD was used in this model [8]. Later, it was demonstrated that it was actually a dimeric UmuD2 that is cleaved to UmuD2 and that next interacts with UmuC to form a stable complex of UmuD2C [9]. This complex was named as Pol V in 1999 by Tang et al. [10]. It can be said that genome replication done on undamaged DNA by Pol III is rapid and error-free [11], the TLS process carried out by mutasome is slow and error-prone [2]. A key feature of the mutasome model is the assembly of RecA* on ssDNA proximal to the lesion (Fig. 1). When a replication fork encounters a lesion, an uncoupling of leading-and lagging-strand synthesis may ensue. Then, one of the TLS Pols can replace Pol III on the ÃŽ ²- clamp and copy the damaged DNA [2]. For both leading and lagging strands it be easily seen that RecA* can be assembled on the form of template strand, proximal to lesion. If the lesion occurred in the leading strand, RecA filaments can be formed on a region of ssDNA that is created by DNA unwinding by DnaB helicase downstream from the lesion but if lesions exist in lagging strand ssDNA is present as a result of Okazaki fragment synthesis [2]. Schlacher and Goodman [12] showed RecA* act in trans form on a non-template ssDNA strand and this transactivation of PolV by RecA* to perform TLS happens in-vitro. And this lead to the PolV mutasome model of TLS (Fig. 1). Jiang et al. [13] demonstrated this new PolV form as PolV Mut = UmuD2C-RecA-ATP. PolV Mut has this ability to copy both damaged and undamaged DNA (e.g. performs TLS) when RecA* is not present [2]. So, the straight role of RecA* in SOS-mediated TLS is to transfer a RecA molecule from the 3†²-filament tip with a molecule of ATP to convert into Pol V Mut, that can cross a different number of DNA lesions on its own. (Fig. 1) [2, 14]. PolV Mut can have two conformations. One is activated form that can copy DNA, the other one is deactivated form that is unable to copy the DNA. The activation of PolV Mut is depended on the location of RecA-ATP bond to the polymerase subunits UmuD2 and UmuC [13]. By representing the RecA* again, the deactivated form of PolV Mut can be activated. In this case, the old RecA-ATP is substituted by a new RecA-ATP from the 3-filament tip [13]. This type of switching on and off is unique to this kind of polymerase and has not been seen in other types of polymerases. This method can be useful specially preventing the undamaged DNA to go under mutation in E.Coli, and give the cell this power to activate Pol V Mut whenever replication fork have stuck at DNA template damage site [2]. PolII and PolIV in E.Coli TLS PolII discovered in 1970[15]. At first, it was thought that mutation is non-informative in PolII [16]. Pol II has an activity isolated from UV-irradiated cells that has this ability to replicate past abasic template lesions [2, 17]. This polymerase has some responses to UV radiation and this activity derives from that [2]. By purification it was proved that the induced lesion-copying protein was Pol II [17]. In 1980, Kenyon and Walker [18] discovered a DNA damage-inducible gene called dinA that can encode PolII. Also, one of the features of PolII is bypassing N2-deoxyguanosine-acetyl aminofluorene (AAF) adducts, this behavior can be error-free and produces 2-frame shift mutations [19]. AAF adducts are of family of aromatic amides that induce frame shift mutations within GpC sequences, such as the NarI sequences [19]. These adducts are able to increase the GC dinucleotide loss in NarI sequence (CGCGCC) by 107 times when they are bound to the G in middle of sequence [20]. PolII and Pol V can complement each other, but it does not mean that their activities are functionally unneeded [21]. As Pham et al. [21] mentioned PolV job is to copy UV-damaged DNA in an error-prone manner in TLS. But Pol II is able to copy chromosomal DNA in an error-free replication process. Kenyon and walker also introduced another gene called dinB gene that can be induced by cellular SOS response to DNA damage [18]. For many years, the function of this gene was unknown. After some year Ohmori et al. [22] found other gene, dinP gene, in the same section that dinB gene was found and Wagner et al. showed that they are able to encode Y-family DNA PolIV [23]. This kind of polymerases like other polymerases used in TLS are not crucial for life. Their role is to bypass certain N2-dG adducts (such as N2-furfuryl-dG) in an error-free manner [2]. Kumari et al. demonstrated they can copy past N2-N2-guanine interstrand cross-links in a high fidelity manner [24]. Regulation of TLS polymerases Different polymerases have this ability to traverse an extensive range of DNA lesions but this ability may cause in reducing the fidelity during replicating the undamaged DNA. Usually cells have several mechanisms to check and control the TLS polymerases because except PolII, all of them has this potential to delete errors made when duplicating an undamaged DNA [2]. Usually no regulation is needed for PolII. Because it has high fidelity derived by high intrinsic 3-5 exonucleolytic proofreading. On the other hand, the Y-family polymerases such as PolIV and PolV are exo-nuclease deficient and needed to be controlled [2]. PolV activity can be regulated by many proteins and many ways. First as said before the UmuD should be activated by UmuD. All UmuD, UmuC and UmuD proteins are all exposed to degradation by Lon and ClpXP protease. RecA* that forms PolV Mut can interact with UmuD2C complexes and active them. The PolV Mut itself activity can be enhanced by binding to the ÃŽ ²-clamp [2]. As Wagner et al. showed the PolIV activity can be stimulated by protein interaction with RecA, UmuD and ÃŽ ²-clamp [25]. Although the main mechanisms of DNA repair by various polymerases are known now, more studies can be conducted on E.Coli cells to find more details about the regulation and side reactions happening in this process. E.Coli cells as simple cells are an appropriate model to analyze these functions. Jarosz et al. proposed well questions about the future studies on Y-family DNA polymerases [26]: (1)How do Y-family polymerases gain access to an appropriate primer terminus and how is their action coordinated with that of replicative polymerases? (2)How do protein–protein interactions regulate the activity of Y-family polymerases? (3)Are there families of cognate lesions for each different Y-family polymerase? (4) Can mutations introduced by Y-family polymerases be corrected by exonucleolytic proofreading in trans? Different polymerases act in different paces after the damaged. For example PolII is induced immediately after DNA damage but PolV is induced about 50 min after the damage [21]. An area of interest could be study on how they can be regulated to be induced in shorter time. References Horton, R. H., Moran, L. A., Perry, M. D., Rawn, D. J. and Scrimgeour, G. K. (2006)Principles of biochemistry. 4th edn. United States: Pearson Education (US). Goodman, M. F. and Woodgate, R. (2013) ‘Translesion DNA Polymerases’,Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology, 5(10). doi: 10.1101/cshperspect.a010363. Friedberg, E. C. (2008) ‘A brief history of the DNA repair field’,Cell Research, 18(1), pp. 3–7. doi: 10.1038/cr.2007.113. Hollaender, A. and Duggar, B. M. 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